Antibiotic Resistance, Heavy Metals and Health Risks in Peshawar's Potable Water: An Integrated Contamination Assessment

Abstract

District Peshawar, the capital of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province, Pakistan, faces critical challenges in ensuring safe drinking water due to rapid urbanization, inadequate sanitation infrastructure, and anthropogenic pollution. This study employs a comprehensive physicochemical and bacteriological assessment of potable water sources in District Peshawar, Pakistan. Water samples were collected from groundwater, surface sources and municipal supplies (including school systems) and were analyzed for physicochemical parameters (pH, turbidity, TDS, fluoride, heavy metals) via atomic absorption spectrometry and bacteriological indicators (total coliforms, fecal coliforms, E. coli) using Most Probable Number (MPN) and membrane filtration methods. Spatial contamination patterns were mapped via GIS-based interpolation. These Results revealed severe heavy metal pollution, with cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb) and chromium (Cr) exceeding WHO permissible limits, while copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) remained within thresholds. Bacteriological analysis identified fecal contamination in 44–48% of samples, with nine multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacterial species isolated, though no extensively drug-resistant (XDR) strains were detected, potentially reflecting maintained sanitary conditions in institutional supplies. Physicochemical anomalies included fluoride exceeded (31% of samples >1.5 mg/L), turbidity fluctuations (5–10 NTU), and episodic TDS breaches, while biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) consistently remained within acceptable ranges. Contamination hotspots correlated with industrial zones and dense settlements, linking directly to elevated incidences of waterborne diseases and chronic heavy metal toxicity risks. Urgent interventions are necessary, including infrastructure upgrades, point-of-use purification, industrial effluent regulation, and GIS-enabled monitoring systems to align with Sustainable Development Goal targets. Further studies are recommended for better insight.